\chapter{Game Design}
\section{Game Design Overview}
\label{sec:game-design-overview}
Game design is the process of setting rules and content of a game. During the game design stage,
it is decided what the player does in the game, how he does it, how he is to be rewarded for doing things
that are deemed "good" by the designers, and how he is to be punished by breaking the set rules, or
simply by being inactive.\\

The game design process starts with an idea of a game, which is worked into a concept. Concepts usually
consist of concept art, which determines the atmosphere of the game, a genre that the game is to fall under.
Before development of the game is proceeded, game designers usually produce a design document that defines a feature
list, a background story for the game together with a setting, economical factors such as a target audience, budget estimates,
and project organizational details such as requirements, work package schedule, and staff.\\

In the next section we focus on commonly used game dynamics and how they are used in Serious Game design, occasionally giving
examples in which games they are utilized.\\

\section{Game Dynamics}
\label{sec:game-design-game-dynamics}
Game dynamics are meant to promote a certain type of behavior the designer wants the player to display. In Serious Games
design mechanics are especially important because they can be used to nudge the player toward the serious goals of the game.

Those dynamics are the result of much work done by a game company which kept researching and refining them as part of their
cookbook for games, a deck of 'cards' where each card represented one game dynamic. While the context of these dynamics
was that of browser games they work for other types of games as well. Eventually those dynamics were leaked and publicly released. \cite{erick10}

While each dynamic is listed separately many of them are used together and one game feature may 'cause' multiple dynamics at the
same time. The following is a description of some of the most commonly utilized and interesting dynamics which, if you have played
a successful game at one point or another, you will probably recognize.
\subsection{Achievement}
\subsubsection{Description}
	Achievements are a very common motivational tool for game developers today. After Microsoft introduced
	their XBox 360 Gamerscore system in 2005, many game publishers such as Valve Software and Sony Computer
	Entertainment followed suit with their Steam and Playstation 3 gaming platforms, respectively. These days,
	almost every game developed has some sort of achievement system that rewards players with virtual badges
	and points for unlocking ingame accomplishment and beating challenges. Usually, each achievement will have
	a certain point value associated to it, and each player will have an achievement point total in his game profile,
	which he can show off to his friends.
\subsubsection{Effect}
    Achievements are an additional mechanic to levels. Some game genres like first person shooters don't have a leveling mechanism
    but are open ended or episodic instead which makes them good candidates for achievement mechanics, however achievements fit into
    any virtual game. Achievements add a sense of \textit{lasting} accomplishment, progress and when publicly viewable
    fulfill a \textit{status} role which in turn can inspire envy by other players and make them strive to achieve the same thing.
\subsection{Disincentives}
\subsubsection{Description}
	A very commonly used mechanic, Disincentives punishes by not succeeding at the given task or
	breaking game rules, inducing a shift in game behavior towards the intended purpose. Most games implement
	this mechanic.\newline
    For example, in America's Army, if one shoots the drill instructor during training camp, one
	will be imprisoned in a virtual military prison for a certain period, unable to continue to advance in the game
	until the prison term has been served.
\subsubsection{Effect}
    Disincentives are a two faced mechanic. Not only do they teach the player to avoid a certain behavior but at the same time
    by contrast they make the desired behavior look attractive. Reward mechanics which are the other side of the coin further
    reinforce the wanted behavior however when only rewards are used the player may try to explore different options. Disincentives
    are then used to keep him on the 'right' path.
\subsection{Blissful Productivity}
\subsubsection{Description}
    Is the concept of our inert desire to be productive and desire to achieve something. The already mentioned Achievement mechanic builds
    on this mechanic by defining concrete feats of productivity and turning them into visible awards. The basic idea is that when the player
    has fun (is blissful) being productive he will continue to put effort into the task at hand.\newline
    An average World of Warcraft player will play 22 hours per week \cite{jane10} because he keeps obtaining items and advances in the games
    environment. Within the game he is being productive.
\subsubsection{Effect}
	The player invests time in the game. If a serious goal of the game is to teach the player a real world skill he will spend the time
    obtaining new knowledge about it and rehearsing already acquired skills.
\subsection{Companion Gaming}
\subsubsection{Description}
	Companion gaming is a mechanic that makes the game easier to access and more comfortable to use,
	usually by spreading the game's aviability to more platforms so that users can play the game where ever they are.
	Also, games can have interfaces to social networking platforms (such as Facebook or Twitter) to interact with.
\subsubsection{Effect}
	Users will motivate each other to play the game more often, and, if the game creates a sense of competition, will
	try to do better than other usergroups.
\subsection{Envy}
\subsubsection{Description}
	The Game Mechanic Envy plays on the natural human desire to want what others have achieved. Usually,
	this mechanic is coupled with a leaderboard mechanic, which enables players to show their game accomplishments
	to others, for example their friends.
\subsubsection{Effect}
    The Envy mechanic builds on the notion that players will be motivated to
	beat their friends' score upon seeing it, increasing their game time. This mechanic can have a ping-pong effect as
	friends who have had their score beat will want to beat the person that defeated them in return.
\subsection{Free Lunch}
\subsubsection{Description}
	Some games are designed to offer players methods to gain free points, achievements or other virtual or
	physical rewards. Sometimes, it is possible to gain currency by successfully inviting a friend to the game,
	or doing a certain task with a group of people in cooperation.
\subsubsection{Effect}
    Players will feel that they	have gained something in the game 'for free' or with little effort,
    and will continue to try to use said functionality to gain even more.
\subsection{Loyalty}
\subsubsection{Description \& Effect}
	Players can be motivated to stick to a certain game and hence develop a sense of loyalty towards it
	if the game offers some sort of reward for continually using the service in a certain way, and offering
	a visual representation of said reward. A good example for Loyalty is the the FourSquare mayor functionality
	(further discussed in the Case Study section).
\subsection{Momentum}
\subsubsection{Description \& Effect}
	A player who has been playing a game for a certain amount of time will keep playing the game because he
    starts regarding the game as something worthwhile. At first a person might reluctantly try a browser game,
    but after having spent an hour each day playing the game for a month even though he does not consciously
    realize this, he has spent 30 hours of playing it. The first effect this has is that logging in becomes
    part of his routine and something he will automatically do without having to think much about it. The second
    thing is that by investing enough time into the game, since the player considers himself to be smart, he
    feels like the game must be worthwhile because he would not have been playing it for all this time otherwise.
    This in combination with all the small achievements like leveling up give him the incentive to keep playing.
\subsection{Status}
\subsubsection{Description \& Effect}
    Status is can be achieved in various forms. It goes hand in hand with the envy dynamic. A player may display
    status by owning rare items, avatars, skin or other status symbols which are publicly visible to other players.
    In \textit{World of Warcraft - Cataclysm} Blizzard introduced a special mount which makes the player to turn
    into a dragon and also allows him to carry around another player while flying. Players will parade their mounts
    or superior equipped characters in crowded areas of the game which inevitably leads others to notice and want
    the same cool items. Status is both an incentive for players to be the first one to get the latest and best items
    as well as making others who do not have it yet feel inadequate and getting them to work to achieve the same. 